Which of the following is NOT an exception to confidentiality?

The correct answer is that voluntary disclosure of information by the patient is not considered an exception to confidentiality. In the context of psychological practice, confidentiality fundamentally protects the private information shared between a psychologist and a patient. However, when a patient chooses to disclose information voluntarily, that information is no longer bound by confidentiality in the same way, because the individual has taken the initiative to share it rather than it being compelled or required for safety or legal compliance reasons.

This distinction is important in understanding how confidentiality operates within therapeutic settings. The other options represent scenarios where confidentiality may not apply due to various legal or ethical obligations. For instance, if a person licensed as a psychologist is a defendant in a legal action, they may need to disclose certain information pertinent to the case. A written waiver from the patient expressly allowing the release of specific information also constitutes a valid reason for breaching confidentiality. Lastly, if there is an imminent probability of harm to the patient or others, confidentiality must be overridden to ensure safety. Thus, voluntary disclosure stands apart from these circumstances, reinforcing the protective nature of confidentiality in the therapeutic relationship.